Physiological parameters, such as the respiration rate, pulse rate, and core body temperature, are the best-observed markers depicting environmental, social, and psychological stresses (Carboni, 2013). They should be quantified either in the body fluid or externally.
Biomarkers help not only in disease diagnosis but also in tracking progression, regression, and outcome after the intervention. According to FDA, an ideal biomarker could be specific for a particular disease and should be able to differentiate between different physiological states, safe and easy to measure, rapid so as to enable faster diagnosis as well as able to give accurate results and consistent between different ethnic groups and genders (Jain, 2010 Sahu et al., 2011).
Hence, a biomarker is a characteristic that can be objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of a physiological as well as a pathological process or pharmacological response to a therapeutic intervention (Naylor, 2003). However, a stress marker indicates that an individual is not in physiological comfort and different energy consuming mechanisms are operating inside their bodies to maintain the homeostasis (McEwen, 2015 Marco-Ramell et al., 2016), with the involvement of numerous biomarkers. These include normal physiological biomarkers that are within the normal range in healthy subjects. Various indicators have been identified as potent markers of different biological processes, such as pathogenic or pharmacological responses, and are designated as biomarkers (Griffiths and Moller, 2002 Dadar et al., 2016 Abbas et al., 2017 Prajapati et al., 2017 Selleck et al., 2017 Ewert and Chang, 2018 Tampa et al., 2018). Strategies to counteract stress in humans and animals often rely on the early detection of stress-induced damage. Both human and animal health and animal production are hampered severely by different stresses (Martin et al., 2011 Takahashi A. However, stress is an inevitable response in all mammals to maintain their homeostasis. The present review describes the current progress of identifying biomarkers, their prognostic, and therapeutic values.Ĭonceptually, stress has been considered to have a negative connotation in the available literature. Considerable scientific advances have been made in the detection, quantitation, and application of these biomarkers. Moreover, different components have been identified as potent mediators of cardiovascular, central nervous system, hepatic, and nephrological disorders, which can also be employed to evaluate these conditions precisely, but with stringent validation and specificity. In addition, stress biomarkers also play critical roles in the prognosis of stress-related diseases and disorders, and therapy guidance.
Potential markers of stress include thermal stress markers, such as heat shock proteins (HSPs), innate immune markers, such as Acute Phase Proteins (APPs), oxidative stress markers, and chemical secretions in the saliva and urine. Stress levels can be monitored by the quantitative and qualitative measurement of biomarkers. The information presented here has been extensively reviewed, compiled, and analyzed from authenticated published resources available on Medline, PubMed, PubMed Central, Science Direct, and other scientific databases. Stress affects an organism's welfare status and induces energy-consuming mechanisms to combat the subsequent ill effects thus, the individual may be immunocompromised, making them vulnerable to pathogens. Various internal and external factors negatively affect the homeostatic equilibrium of organisms at the molecular to the whole-body level, inducing the so-called state of stress.
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